TOEFL iBT – Exam 1 – Reading

TOEFL iBT Reading Practice Test – Exam 1

Text 2

You are going to read the second of 2 passages. You will have to answer 10 questions per passage. In a real exam, you would need to complete the Reading Section in about 36 minutes. Read the second passage and answer the questions.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. ■ ① When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. ■ ② Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. ■ ③ The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl. ■ ④

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 1/10

1 Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.

A well-known example is the Katy Freeway in Houston, Texas: despite being expanded to 26 lanes, it quickly became congested again—at levels worse than before.

A.Square 1

B.Square 2

C.Square 3

D.Square 4

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 2/10

2 According to Paragraph 2, all of the following statements are true of phantom traffic jams EXCEPT:

A.They typically occur in dense, slow-moving traffic.

B.They are wholly the result of driver behavior.

C.They reduce the volume of traffic that can be carried.

D.They contribute a disproportionate emissions load.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 3/10

3 The word steady in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to

A.controlled

B.undisturbed

C.uniform

D.continuous

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 4/10

4 In paragraph 4, why does the author include the information about Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study?

A.To explain that the phenomenon of phantom traffic jams is universal, and not confined to any one country.

B.To support the claim that phantom jams can arise in a matter or minutes but take far longer to dissipate

C.To provide evidence for the statement that phantom traffic jams are caused by driver behavior

D.To illustrate how traffic can be disrupted even within a controlled environment.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 5/10

5 Which of the following can be inferred from the paragraph about the Japanese experiment?

A.Phantom traffic jams are unavoidable in certain traffic conditions because drivers are human beings.

B.Phantom traffic jams will never be eradicated while vehicles are under the control of human operators.

C.Real traffic jams take longer to clear than phantom traffic jams because there is a single identifiable cause.

D.Both real traffic jams and phantom traffic jams are ultimately due to errors on the part of vehicle operators.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 6/10

6 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the following sentence from paragraph 5?

Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front.

A.Shockwaves from braking can move backward at up to 20 mph as drivers brake too hard to keep a safe distance.

B.Drivers brake slightly harder than needed, creating shockwaves that travel backward at up to 20 mph.

C.Shockwaves from sudden braking spread backward at up to 20 mph, as drivers overreact to high speeds by braking too hard.

D.When vehicles are farther apart, drivers maintain safe distances without the need for sudden braking.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 7/10

7 According to the text, why is lane-changing ineffective against avoiding shockwave propagation?

A.Because the ripple effect caused by breaking follows non-linear dynamics making switching lanes fruitless.

B.Because it merely shifts the pattern of braking to other lanes as cars shift between fast-moving traffic.

C.Because sudden lane changes force drivers to slow down dramatically, leading to traffic jams in all lanes.

D.Because in high-speed, high-density traffic, drivers are unable to maintain safe following distances when lane-switching occurs.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 8/10

8 According to paragraph 6, which of the following is true?

A.Building new roads has historically proven ineffective because phantom traffic jams quickly begin to form.

B.A so-called 'road diet' involves restricting the amount of traffic allowed on a particular stretch of highway.

C.Reducing the capacity of a road forces road users to find alternative routes or modes of transport.

D.Replacing roads with lower-capacity tunnels can offer a viable solution to the issue of traffic congestion.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 9/10

9 The author suggests all of the following methods to reduce traffic congestion EXCEPT

A.encouraging people to cycle or walk.

B.improving the way cities are structured.

C.imposing financial penalties on drivers.

D.rethinking the necessity of commuting.

[1] Roads tend to fill up quickly after being built due to induced demand. When new roads or additional lanes are added, the initial increase in capacity attracts more drivers who previously used alternate routes, public transport, or avoided trips. Over time, extra capacity makes driving seem more accessible, encouraging people to drive more frequently or to move farther from urban centers, which increases overall traffic volume. The consequences include driver frustration, logistics delays, environmental damage, and urban sprawl.

[2] Quite often, when roads are close to capacity, delays are due to phantom traffic jams. These happen when a driver brakes suddenly or too hard, creating a shockwave that ripples backward through traffic. Drivers behind the one who brakes must react, often braking harder than necessary to maintain a safe distance. This cumulative effect causes a 'stop-and-go' wave that reduces the road's effective capacity. Even a minor braking event can cause significant slowdowns that persist long after the initial brake was applied, leading to the formation of a 'phantom traffic jam,' where cars slow or stop without an apparent reason; there is no accident or obstruction. These jams lead to increased fuel consumption and emissions, as vehicles are less efficient when frequently accelerating and decelerating.

[3] Phantom jams are purely a result of driver behavior and can take much longer to clear than to form. Traffic congestion and shockwave propagation follow nonlinear dynamics, meaning that although a jam may form quickly, clearing it takes longer because traffic must gradually regain steady flow. Research shows that traffic shockwaves often move backward at speeds around 10–12 mph. This backward movement means that even a brief braking event can affect miles of road within minutes, impacting thousands of vehicles in high-density conditions.

[4] In one famous experiment, Sugiyama's 2008 Phantom Jam study in Japan, researchers placed vehicles on a circular track and instructed drivers to maintain a constant speed. Despite the absence of external disruptions, tiny variations in speed caused vehicles to form a jam as the shockwave moved backward. It’s challenging for different drivers and vehicles to maintain exact speeds and distances, which explains how even small fluctuations lead to congestion. Field studies and simulations suggest that a phantom jam may take two to three times longer to dissipate than it took to form. For instance, in dense traffic traveling at 30 mph, a single, brief braking event can trigger a phantom jam within 1–2 minutes, as each driver’s reaction adds roughly a second in delay.

[5] On multi-lane highways with traffic moving at higher speeds, the impact is even more dramatic. Vehicles are farther apart, so shockwaves from a braking event can travel backward at up to 20 mph as drivers overcompensate for the high speeds, often braking harder than necessary to avoid the vehicle in front. While some drivers may attempt to switch lanes to bypass the slowdown, this often spreads the congestion across all lanes as other drivers brake to accommodate merging traffic. In high-speed, high-density conditions on a three-lane highway, a phantom jam can form within a minute. Higher traffic density amplifies the effect, and once formed, such jams may take hours to clear completely.

[6] Historically, the response to such congestion was to expand road capacity, but induced demand has shown this to be an ineffective and environmentally costly solution. An alternative approach known as a 'road diet' has proven more effective in some cases. For instance, Seattle’s SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct was partially closed and eventually replaced by a reduced-capacity tunnel, which led to improved traffic flow. When lanes are removed traffic tends to 'evaporate.' Drivers find alternative routes, travel at different times, or reduce the number of journeys they make.

[7] However, to truly address congestion, cities need sustainable, integrated transport systems. Expanding public transit networks, developing safe cycling infrastructure, and encouraging walkable urban design are proving effective in reducing dependency on cars. Cities like London use congestion charging to discourage traffic, while in other places there are carpool incentives. By prioritizing multi-modal transit and smarter city planning, urban areas can reduce road congestion, lower emissions, and create more livable, efficient spaces that benefit both commuters and the environment.

Question 10/10

10 Traffic congestion is a global problem, particularly in urban areas and is affected by road capacity and driver behavior.

Choose 3 of the following sentences to complete a summary of the passage.

This question is worth 2 points.

A.Expanding road capacity is not a long-term solution to overcrowded roads.

B.Induced demand encourages people to use newly expanded roads or travel farther.

C.Phantom traffic jams are the main cause of traffic disruption.

D.Phantom jams are more dramatic on big, high-speed highways due to braking and lane-switching

E.A 'road diet' approach is proven effective way of reducing congestion by rerouting traffic flows elsewhere.

F.Better city planning and public transport are sustainable solutions to urban congestion.

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The TOEFL iBT Reading section

Summary

The TOEFL iBT Reading section includes:

• Passages: 2 reading passages
• Length: Each passage is approximately 700 words long
• Questions: 10 questions per passage, totaling 20 questions
• Time: About 35 minutes to complete the section

The passages are excerpts from university-level textbooks, covering a variety of academic subjects. Each passage includes all the necessary information to answer the questions.

Reading scores

Each of the four sections of the TOEFL iBT –Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing– is scored on a scale of 0-30, totaling 120 points. The proficiency levels for reading are:

• Advanced: 24-30
• High-Intermediate: 18-23
• Low-Intermediate: 4-17
• Below Low-Intermediate: 0-3

Scores provide personalized feedback and performance insights. Test takers receive instant scoring for the reading and listening sections, which means they can see their results immediately after completing these parts of the exam. There are no passing or failing scores; institutions set their own requirements. For more details, visit the TOEFL score understanding page.

Types of questions

Here’s an example text that we will use to demonstrate the different types of questions in a TOEFL iBT reading test.

1. Factual Information

Factual information questions are about details in the passage. The answer choices will not use the same wording; they will be a paraphrase of the information given.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab to see the correct answer and a detailed explanation why each option is correct or incorrect.

2. Inference

Inference questions are about what you can guess from the information given. There will always be some evidence in the passage to support the correct answer, but the information will not be explicitly stated.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

3. Rhetorical Purpose

These are a form of inference question, but instead of asking what we can guess about the information, it is about what we can guess about why the author included a particular piece of information. It could be to support a statement, offer an example, or introduce a different argument. One reason will be logical, given the context of the passage. The other choices will be plausible, but not supported by the passage.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

4. Negative Factual Information

These are like factual information questions in reverse. Instead of asking for one fact, the question asks about three facts, one of which is untrue. The answer choices that are true will NOT use the same language as the passage, so read carefully to decide which answer is FALSE.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

5. Vocabulary in Context

Most words in English have multiple meanings, and which one is meant is determined by context. For these questions, try to rephrase the sentence using a different word. If it matches one of the options it is likely correct. Test each of the choices (you may need to change its form) to see which makes sense.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

6. Sentence simplification

One long and potentially complex sentence will be taken from the text. You will have four sentences which purport to paraphrase the information in a simpler form. One will, the others will not. Incorrect choices may reverse information, focus on a minor detail, or present generalisations.

Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy, namely the Law of Horizontality, which posits that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones.

ANSWER : Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

B is incorrect because it mentions the date, the principles underpinning stratigraphy, Steno and geology, but it doesn’t say what the principles are.
C is incorrect because it mentions Steno, geology and the date, and while it refers to the Laws of Horizontality and Superposition, it doesn’t tell us what those are.
D is incorrect because it mentions stratigraphy and what the laws underpinning it mean, but it doesn’t refer to Steno who had the idea in the first place, or to geology.

7. Insert Text questions

Every reading passage has at least one insert text question. The purpose is to test your understanding of cohesion and coherence.

You will be given a sentence that has been omitted from the passage. There will be four small squares in the text [■] that indicate possible locations for a missing sentence. You can click on each one and see how well the sentence fits. Use contextual clues like pronoun referents and written discourse markers to help decide where the missing sentence best fits.

Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. [A] ■ Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. [B] ■ As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. [C] ■ Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. [D] ■ This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation’s deepest point to aid future researchers.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

8. Prose Summary Questions

Each reading passage has one prose summary question. Prose Summary questions cover the entire passage. There are six answer choices, and you must choose three correct choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.
If you correctly choose all three, you get two points; if choose two correct answers, you get one point. You get nothing for only getting one answer correct, so choose carefully. The incorrect choices will have a key difference to the actual details in the passage.

ANSWER: Check the exam in the “Exercises” tab.

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